Farmer Field Schools (FFSs) are an adult education and agricultural extension approach designed to empower farmers, increase productivity and improve livelihoods. We systematically review the literature and undertake content analysis, meta-analysis and meta-regression analysis to explore how FFSs are targeted and how the targeting affects participation and performance. Some FFS programs are found to include ‘equity’ criteria targeting the poorest or those judged to be most in need of the benefits FFSs offer. However, many FFS programs include ‘effectiveness’ targeting criteria designed to promote inclusion of farmers with more resources, education and social agency, with the aim of maximizing the impact of the program. While programs typically achieved the effectiveness-related inclusion objectives, some failed to fulfil the equity-related inclusion goals. This was because either conflicting targeting criteria and participant-selection mechanisms favored elite capture, or the need for a minimum level of social and economic capital precluded participation for some. There is also evidence that the FFS program participants’ characteristics can significantly impact outcomes. Programs with relatively more educated participants may be more effective in improving the adoption of farming practices, increasing yields and passing on FFS learning to neighboring farmers living in the same communities. However, poorer farmers benefit more when they participate directly in programs than when they receive knowledge indirectly.
